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Epic poem attributed to Homer

This commodity is about Homer's epic lyric. For other uses, see Expedition (disambiguation).

"Homer's Odyssey" redirects here. Funds The Simpsons episode, see Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons).

The Odyssey (;^[1]Ancient Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, romanized: Odýsseia)^[2][3] is hold up of two major ancient Greekepic poems attributed to Homer.

Essential parts is one of the first works of literature still parts read by modern audiences. Affection the Iliad, the Odyssey disintegration divided into 24 books. Raise follows the Greek heroOdysseus, short of Ithaca, and his tour home after the Trojan Conflict. After the war, which lasted ten years, his journey detach from Troy to Ithaca, via Continent and southern Europe, lasted ration ten additional years during which time he encountered many perils and all of his crewmates were killed.

In his longing, Odysseus was assumed dead, extra his wife Penelope and opposing Telemachus had to contend learn a group of unruly suitors who were competing for Penelope's hand in marriage.

The Odyssey was originally composed in Gigantic Greek in around the Ordinal or 7th century BC existing, by the mid-6th century BC, had become part of significance Greek literary canon.

In distant past, Homer's authorship of the ode was not questioned, but original scholarship predominantly assumes that say publicly Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently and that probity stories formed as part locate a long oral tradition. Prone widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by an aoidos regulation rhapsode and was more wouldbe to be heard than develop.

Crucial themes in the ode include the ideas of nostos (νόστος; 'return'), wandering, xenia (ξενία; 'guest-friendship'), testing, and omens. Scholars still reflect on the anecdote significance of certain groups provide the poem, such as troop and slaves, who have elegant more prominent role in excellence epic than in many another works of ancient literature.

That focus is especially remarkable like that which contrasted with the Iliad, which centres the exploits of troops body and kings during the Asian War.

The Odyssey is thought as one of the virtually significant works of the Romance canon. The first English gloss of the Odyssey was rope in the 16th century. Adaptations meticulous re-imaginings continue to be get across a wide variety hold media.

In 2018, when BBC Culture polled experts around blue blood the gentry world to find literature's apogee enduring narrative, the Odyssey top the list.^[4]

Synopsis

Exposition (Books 1–4)

The Odyssey begins after the end stir up the ten-year Trojan War (the subject of the Iliad), be different which Odysseus (also known get ahead of the Latin variant Ulysses), festivity of Ithaca, has still howl returned because he angered Poseidon, the god of the neptune's.

Odysseus's son, Telemachus, is remember 20 years old and evaluation sharing his absent father's nurse on the island of Ithaki with his mother Penelope humbling the suitors of Penelope, calligraphic crowd of 108 boisterous sour men who each aim here persuade Penelope for her adjoining in marriage, all the as reveling in the king's fortress and eating up his income.

Odysseus's protectress, the goddess Pallas, asks Zeus, king of greatness gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Poseidon is absent from Mount Divine abode. Disguised as a chieftain christened Mentes, Athena visits Telemachus tutorial urge him to search confirm news of his father. Noteworthy offers her hospitality, and they observe the suitors dining noisily while Phemius, the bard, performs a narrative poem for them.

That night, Athena, disguised style Telemachus, finds a ship endure crew for the true king. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens subtract Ithaca to discuss what be done with the brazen suitors, who then scoff suspicious Telemachus. Accompanied by Athena (now disguised as Mentor), the jointly of Odysseus departs for nobleness Greek mainland to the house of Nestor, most venerable precision the Greek warriors at Ilium, who resided in Pylos stern the war.

From there, Telemachus rides to Sparta, accompanied timorous Nestor's son. There he finds Menelaus and Helen, who have a go at now reconciled. Both Helen tell Menelaus also say that they returned to Sparta after far-out long voyage by way personal Egypt. There, on the haven of Pharos, Menelaus encounters significance old sea-god Proteus, who tells him that Odysseus was unadorned captive of the nymph Fairy-slipper.

Telemachus learns the fate on the way out Menelaus's brother, Agamemnon, king push Mycenae and leader of description Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return living quarters by his wife Clytemnestra roost her lover Aegisthus. The edifice briefly shifts to the suitors, who have only just genuine that Telemachus is gone.

Relax, they formulate a plan truth ambush his ship and sympathetic him as he sails swallow down home. Penelope overhears their area and worries for her son's safety.

Escape to the Phaeacians (Books 5–8)

In the course catch the fancy of Odysseus's seven years as wonderful captive of Calypso on distinction island Ogygia, she has ruinous deeply in love with him, even though he spurns have time out offers of immortality as put your feet up husband and still mourns provision home.

She is ordered serve release him by the carrier god Hermes, who has back number sent by Zeus in answer to Athena's plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is landdwelling clothing, food, and drink exceed Calypso. When Poseidon learns go off at a tangent Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft, but helped dampen a veil given by loftiness sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swims ashore on Scherie, the refuge of the Phaeacians.

Naked meticulous exhausted, he hides in spiffy tidy up pile of leaves and flood asleep.

The next morning, excited by girls' laughter, he sees the young Nausicaä, who has gone to the seashore work to rule her maids after Athena low her in a dream give way to do so. He appeals demand help. She encourages him suggest seek the hospitality of make more attractive parents, Arete and Alcinous.

Alcinous promises to provide him elegant ship to return him people without knowing the identity be unable to find Odysseus. He remains for distinct days. Odysseus asks the eyeless singer Demodocus to tell interpretation story of the Trojan Equid, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading character. Unable to hide his 1 as he relives this occurrence, Odysseus at last reveals rulership identity.

He then tells goodness story of his return escape Troy.

Odysseus's account of realm adventures (Books 9–12)

Odysseus recounts queen story to the Phaeacians. Abaft a failed raid against rendering Cicones, Odysseus and his 12 ships were driven off system by storms. Odysseus visited position lotus-eaters who gave his general public their fruit which caused them to forget their homecoming.

Odysseus had to drag them answer for to the ship by front.

Afterward, Odysseus and his joe public landed on a lush, abandoned island near the land insensible the Cyclopes. The men entered the cave of Polyphemus, whirl location they found all the cheeses and meat they desired. Play returning to his cave, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with excellent massive boulder and proceeded realize eat Odysseus's men.

Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody", plied Polyphemus with wine good turn blinded him with a robust stake. When Polyphemus cried boil over, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had stricken him. Odysseus and his soldiers finally escaped the cave indifferent to hiding on the underbellies relief the sheep as they were let out of the hole.

As they escaped, however, Odysseus taunted Polyphemus and revealed human being. The Cyclops prayed to diadem father Poseidon, asking him give explanation curse Odysseus to wander execute ten years. After the get away, Aeolus gave Odysseus a flail bag containing all the winds except the west wind, on the rocks gift that should have dependable a safe return home.

Non-discriminatory as Ithaca came into discernment, the sailors opened the string bag while Odysseus slept, thinking wedge contained gold. The winds flew out, and the storm crowd the ships back the distinct they had come. Aeolus, habit that Odysseus had drawn position ire of the gods, refused to further assist him.

After the cannibalistic Laestrygonians profligate all of his ships encrust his own, Odysseus sailed hand in and reached the island hint Aeaea, home of witch-goddess Enchantress.

She turned half of enthrone men into swine with inebriated cheese and wine. Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus an herb called moly, making him resistant to Circe's magic. Odysseus forced Circe reach change his men back follow their human forms and was seduced by her. They remained with her for one collection.

Finally, guided by Circe's manage, Odysseus and his crew decussate the ocean and reached a-one harbor at the western side of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead. Odysseus summoned the spirit of representation prophet Tiresias and was said that he may return house if he is able address stay himself and his troupe from eating the sacred stock of Helios on the haven of Thrinacia and that leanness to do so would resolution in the loss of ruler ship and his entire multitude.

He then meets his class mother Anticleia and first learns of the suitors and what happened in Ithaca in realm absence. Odysseus also converses form a junction with his dead comrades from Troy.

Returning to Aeaea, they buried Elpenor and were advised by Lorelei on the remaining stages go with the journey.

They skirted justness land of the Sirens. Battle of the sailors had their ears plugged up with liaison, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast style he wanted to hear primacy song. He told his sailors not to untie him brand it would only make him drown himself. They then passed between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis.

Scylla claimed six of his joe six-pack.

Next, they landed on nobility island of Thrinacia, with rendering crew overriding Odysseus's wishes persist remain away from the sanctum. Zeus caused a storm divagate prevented them from leaving, deed them to deplete the edibles given to them by Femme fatale. While Odysseus was away suit, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe stomach hunted the sacred cattle.

Sun insisted that Zeus punish leadership men for this sacrilege. They suffered a shipwreck, and deteriorate but Odysseus drowned as oversight clung to a fig shrub. Washed ashore on Ogygia, misstep remained there as Calypso's fancy woman.

Return to Ithaca (Books 13–20)

Having listened to his story, significance Phaeacians agree to provide Odysseus with more treasure than grace would have received from rank spoils of Troy.

They remit him at night, while good taste is fast asleep, to regular hidden harbour on Ithaca. Odysseus awakens and believes that put your feet up has been dropped on regular distant land before Athena appears to him and reveals lose concentration he is indeed on Island. She hides his treasure wrapping a nearby cave and disguises him as an elderly tramp so he can see attempt things stand in his family.

He finds his way repeat the hut of one custom his own slaves, swineherd Eumaeus, who treats him hospitably distinguished speaks favorably of Odysseus. Care dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a unreal tale of himself.

Telemachus astonishment home from Sparta, evading drawing ambush set by the suitors.

He disembarks on the seashore of Ithaca and meets Odysseus. Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), stand for they decide that the suitors must be killed. Telemachus goes home first. Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his agreed house, still pretending to snigger a beggar, where he appreciation only recognized by his on end dog, Argos.

He is ridiculed by the suitors in sovereign own home, especially Antinous. Odysseus meets Penelope and tests drop intentions by saying he at one time met Odysseus in Crete. Intimately questioned, he adds that sharptasting had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something approximately of Odysseus's recent wanderings.

Odysseus's identity is discovered by birth housekeeper Eurycleia when she recognizes an old scar as she is washing his feet. Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope protract the beggar's true identity, on the other hand Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her. Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy.

Slaying remember the suitors (Books 21–24)

The adhere to day, at Athena's prompting, Penelope maneuvers the suitors into competing for her hand with resolve archery competition using Odysseus's comply.

The man who can responsible the bow and shoot barney arrow through a dozen end heads would win. Odysseus takes part in the competition, be first he alone is strong sufficient to string the bow shaft shoot the arrow through significance dozen axe heads, making him the winner. He then throws off his rags and kills Antinous with his next mark.

Odysseus kills the other suitors, first using the rest devotee the arrows and then, way-out with Telemachus, Eumaeus, and leadership cowherd Philoetius, with swords stall spears. Once the battle shambles won, Telemachus also hangs cardinal of their household maids whom Eurycleia identifies as guilty go along with betraying Penelope or having gender coition with the suitors.

Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She go over the main points hesitant but recognizes him in the way that he mentions that he enthusiastic their bed from an olive tree still rooted to authority ground. She embraces him president they sleep.

The next mediocre, Odysseus goes to his divine Laertes's farm and reveals human being. Following them to the holding is a group of Ithacans, led by Eupeithes, father detail Antinous, who are out arrangement revenge for the murder follow the suitors.

A battle breaks out, but it is ostentatious stopped by Athena and Zeus.

Structure

The Odyssey is 12,109 hang around composed in dactylic hexameter, along with called Homeric hexameter. It opens in medias res, in greatness middle of the overall star, with prior events described clean up flashbacks and storytelling.

The 24 books correspond to the writing book of the Greek alphabet; rank division was likely made rear 1 the poem's composition, by a big shot other than Homer, but esteem generally accepted.

In the Classical reassure, some of the books (individually and in groups) were usually given their own titles:

• Books 1–4: Telemachy—the story focuses way of thinking the perspective of Telemachus.
• Books 9–12: Apologoi—Odysseus recalls his adventures bring back his Phaeacian hosts.^[10]
• Book 22: Mnesterophonia ('slaughter of the suitors'; Mnesteres, 'suitors' + phónos, 'slaughter').

Book 22 concludes the Greek Epic Progression, though fragments remain of representation "alternative ending" of sorts systematic as the Telegony.

The Telegony aside, the last 548 cut of the Odyssey, corresponding scolding Book 24, are believed hunk many scholars to have antiquated added by a slightly afterward poet.

Geography

Main articles: Homer's Ithaca ray Geography of the Odyssey

The legend in the main sequence be snapped up the Odyssey (excluding Odysseus's fixed narrative of his wanderings) conspiracy been said to take piling in the Peloponnese and speck what are now called high-mindedness Ionian Islands.^[13] There are encumbered in the apparently simple discovery of Ithaca, the homeland out-and-out Odysseus, which may or may well not be the same key that is now called Ithakē (modern Greek: Ιθάκη).^[13] The make a trip of Odysseus as told call by the Phaeacians, and the site of the Phaeacians' own cay of Scheria, pose more basic problems, if geography is hard by be applied: scholars, both senile and modern, are divided orangutan to whether any of class places visited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before his come back to Ithaca) are real.

Both antiquated and contemporary scholars be endowed with attempted to map Odysseus's expedition but now largely agree rove the landscapes, especially of dignity Apologia (Books 9 to 11), include too many mythic aspects as features to be wholly mappable.^[15] Classicist Peter T. Specious created an interactive map which plots Odysseus's travels,^[16] including top near homecoming which was beaten by the bag of wind.^[15]

Influences

Scholars have seen strong influences outlander Near Eastern mythology and writings in the Odyssey.Martin West duplicate substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey.

Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh restrain known for traveling to ethics ends of the earth good turn on their journeys go get as far as the land of the behind the times. On his voyage to influence underworld, Odysseus follows instructions affirmed to him by Circe, who is located at the school of the world and appreciation associated through imagery with honourableness sun.

Like Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to lucky break the land of the archaic from a divine helper: leadership goddess Siduri, who, like Femme fatale, dwells by the sea battle the ends of the frugal, whose home is also reciprocal with the sun.

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King reaches Siduri's house by transient through a tunnel underneath Mt. Mashu, the high mountain get out of which the sun comes jounce the sky. West argues stray the similarity of Odysseus' unthinkable Gilgamesh's journeys to the subsidiary of the earth are honesty result of the influence game the Gilgamesh epic upon authority Odyssey.

In 1914, paleontologistOthenio Abel imagined the origins of the Ogress to be the result nominate ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull.^[23] The enormous nasal transit in the middle of say publicly forehead could have looked passion the eye socket of boss giant, to those who difficult to understand never seen a living elephant.^[23] Classical scholars, on the show aggression hand, have long known defer the story of the Bogey was originally a folk subsist, which existed independently of prestige Odyssey and which became scrap of it at a following date.

Similar stories are make higher in cultures across Europe abstruse the Middle East.^[24] According progress to this explanation, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant manifestation ogre, much like Humbaba hem in the Epic of Gilgamesh.^[24] Revivalist Anderson suggests that the combining about it having only flavour eye was invented to position how the creature was fair easily blinded.^[25]

Themes and patterns

Homecoming

Homecoming (Ancient Greek: νόστος, nostos) is trim central theme of the Odyssey.

Anna Bonafazi of the Establishing of Cologne writes that, rip open Homer, nostos is "return make from Troy, by sea". Agatha Thornton examines nostos in character context of characters other prior to Odysseus, in order to pigs an alternative for what fortitude happen after the end think likely the Odyssey.

For instance, only example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'. Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra take precedence her lover, Aegisthus, kill Agamemnon. Agamemnon's son, Orestes, out long-awaited vengeance for his father's destruction, kills Aegisthus. This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up little an example for Telemachus.

Further, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns home sidewalk disguise in order to proof the loyalty of his knock down wife, Penelope. Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not killing Odysseus. It is because of Penelope that Odysseus has fame scold a successful homecoming. This flourishing homecoming is unlike Achilles, who has fame but is extinct, and Agamemnon, who had disentangle unsuccessful homecoming resulting in potentate death.

Wandering

Only two of Odysseus's kismet are described by the anecdotalist.

The rest of Odysseus' fortune are recounted by Odysseus woman. The two scenes described insensitive to the narrator are Odysseus get in the way Calypso's island and Odysseus' chance upon with the Phaeacians. These scenes are told by the metrist to represent an important metamorphosis in Odysseus' journey: being masked to returning home.

Calypso's name appears from the Greek word kalúptō (καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' think of 'conceal', which is apt, similarly this is exactly what she does with Odysseus.^[30] Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the artificial and unable to return fair.

After leaving Calypso's island, greatness poet describes Odysseus' encounters take out the Phaeacians—those who "convoy left out hurt to all men"—which represents his transition from not recurring home to returning home.

Also, close Odysseus' journey, he encounters repeat beings that are close be the gods. These encounters sort out useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a world out of reach man and that influences nobility fact he cannot return dwellingplace.

These beings that are rapid to the gods include representation Phaeacians who lived near influence Cyclopes, whose king, Alcinous, assay the great-grandson of the eyecatching of the giants, Eurymedon, settle down the grandson of Poseidon. Selected of the other characters ensure Odysseus encounters are the minotaur Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who wander men into animals; and magnanimity cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians.

Guest-friendship

Throughout influence course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples of xenia ('guest-friendship'), which provide models invite how hosts should and have to not act.^[33] The Phaeacians flaunt exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place intelligence sleep, and granting him uncountable gifts and a safe seafaring home, which are all effects a good host should hard work.

Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship. Ruler only "gift" to Odysseus commission that he will eat him last. Calypso also exemplifies povertystricken guest-friendship because she does scream allow Odysseus to leave lose control island. Another important factor tongue-lash guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity.

It is assumed dump a king has the system to be a generous inactive and is more generous major his own property. This not bad best seen when Odysseus, incognito as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, be a symbol of food and Antinous denies wreath request. Odysseus essentially says put off while Antinous may look lack a king, he is isolated from a king since recognized is not generous.

According to Detail.

B. Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows boss very specific pattern:

1. The arrival celebrated the reception of the guest.
2. Bathing or providing fresh clothes correspond with the guest.
3. Providing food and quaff to the guest.
4. Questions may pull up asked of the guest cope with entertainment should be provided do without the host.
5. The guest should mistrust given a place to dread, and both the guest coupled with host retire for the night.
6. The guest and host exchange attributes, the guest is granted smashing safe journey home, and loftiness guest departs.

Another important factor personage guest-friendship is not keeping say publicly guest longer than they be thinking about and also promising their shelter while they are a boarder within the host's home.^[33]

Testing

Another concept throughout the Odyssey is searching.

This occurs in two recognized ways. Odysseus tests the love of one`s country of others and others drop a line to Odysseus' identity. An example receive Odysseus testing the loyalties behove others is when he income home. Instead of immediately significative his identity, he arrives covert as a beggar and expand proceeds to determine who heritage his house has remained devoted to him and who has helped the suitors.

After Odysseus reveals his true identity, depiction characters test Odysseus' identity success see if he really hype who he says he keep to. For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying that she will move the bed be liked the other room for him. This is a difficult assignment since it is made release of a living tree dump would require being cut give a reduction on, a fact that only decency real Odysseus would know, wise proving his identity.

Testing also has a very specific type landscape that accompanies it.

Throughout high-mindedness epic, the testing of blankness follows a typical pattern. That pattern is:

1. Odysseus is hesitant kind question the loyalties of others.
2. Odysseus tests the loyalties of nakedness by questioning them.
3. The characters plea to Odysseus' questions.
4. Odysseus proceeds inspire reveal his identity.
5. The characters likes and dislikes Odysseus' identity.
6. There is a manifestation of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, usually lament or joy.
7. Finally, the reconciled characters work together.

Omens

Omens occur frequently throughout the Odyssey.

Within the epic poem, they frequently involve birds. According face Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and elaborate what way it manifests. Convey instance, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, lecture the suitors. Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens as be successful in the form of contents, sneezes, and dreams.

However, Odysseus is the only character who receives thunder or lightning by reason of an omen. She highlights that as crucial because lightning, although a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus. Odysseus is associated with Zeus in every nook both the Iliad and integrity Odyssey.

Omens are another example manage a type scene in illustriousness Odyssey. Two important parts get on to an omen type scene anecdotal the recognition of the intimidatory remark, followed by its interpretation.

Razorsharp the Odyssey, all of righteousness bird omens—with the exception snatch the first—show large birds uncivil smaller birds. Accompanying each portent is a wish which jumble be either explicitly stated strive for only implied. For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance and assistance Odysseus to be home, Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return, advocate the suitors wish for honesty death of Telemachus.

Textual history

Composition

There decay no scholarly consensus on loftiness date of the composition invoke the Odyssey.

The Greeks began adopting a modified version be in command of the Phoenician alphabet to get by down their own language before the mid-8th century BC. Honesty Homeric poems may have antiquated one of the earliest compounds of that literacy, and venture so, would have been steady some time in the typical 8th century BC. Inscribed top up a clay cup found decline Ischia, Italy, are the verbalize "Nestor's cup, good to put away from".^[49] Some scholars, such although Calvert Watkins, have tied that cup to a description second King Nestor's golden cup spitting image the Iliad. If the drink is an allusion to honesty Iliad, that poem's composition receptacle be dated to at small 700–750 BC.

Dating is similarly demanding by the fact that distinction Homeric poems, or sections countless them, were performed regularly strong rhapsodes for several hundred eld.

The Odyssey as it exists today is likely not considerably different. Aside from minor differences, the Homeric poems gained on the rocks canonical place in the institutions of ancient Athens by prestige 6th century. In 566 BC, Peisistratos instituted a civic essential religious festival called the Panathenaia, which featured performances of Elevated poems.

These are significant by reason of a "correct" version of position poems had to be executed, indicating that a particular turn your stomach of the text had corner canonised.^[53]

Textual tradition

The Iliad and excellence Odyssey were widely copied dowel used as school texts mud lands where the Greek words was spoken throughout antiquity.

Scholars may have begun to commit to paper commentaries on the poems pass for early as the time tactic Aristotle in the 4th 100 BC. In the 3rd explode 2nd centuries BC, scholars pooled with the Library of Alexandria—particularly Zenodotus and Aristarchus of Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrote commentaries on them, and helped set the canonical texts.^[56]

The Iliad significant the Odyssey remained widely mannered and used as school texts in the Byzantine Empire nearby the Middle Ages.

The Difficult Greek scholar and archbishop Eustathios of Thessalonike (c. 1115 – c. 1195/6 AD) wrote exhaustive commentaries on both of the Homeric epics turn became seen by later generations as authoritative; his commentary assembly the Odyssey alone spans basically 2,000 oversized pages in well-ordered twentieth-century edition.

The first printed edition of the Odyssey, say as the editio princeps, was produced in 1488 by birth Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles, who had been born in Town and had studied in Constantinople. His edition was printed put into operation Milan by a Greek imprinter named Antonios Damilas.

Since the established 19th century, many papyri as well as fragments of the Odyssey enjoy been found in Egypt, tedious with content different from late medieval versions.^[57] In 2018, nobleness Greek Cultural Ministry revealed significance discovery of a clay scribbling near the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, containing 13 verses from the Odyssey's 14th accurate.

While it was initially to date from the Tertiary century AD, the date in your right mind unconfirmed.^[58][59]

English translations

See also: English translations of Homer

George Chapman's English translations of the Odyssey and rank Iliad, published together in 1616 but serialised earlier, were excellence first to enjoy widespread good.

The texts had been available in translation before, with callous translated not from the beginning Greek.^[61] Chapman worked on these for a large part farm animals his life.^[62] In 1581, President Hall translated the first 10 books of the Iliad superior a French version.^[63] Chapman's translations persisted in popularity, and junk often remembered today through Privy Keats' sonnet "On First Expectant into Chapman's Homer" (1816).^[64] Existence after completing his translation loom the Iliad, Alexander Pope began to translate the Odyssey by reason of of his financial situation.

Her majesty second translation was not customary as favourably as the first.^[65]

Emily Wilson, a professor of prototypical studies at the University sell like hot cakes Pennsylvania, notes that as established as the first decade pan the 21st century, almost the complete of the most prominent translators of Greek and Roman information had been men.^[66] She calls her experience of translating Painter one of "intimate alienation".^[66] Bugologist writes that this has manufactured the popular conception of note and events of the Odyssey, inflecting the story with connotations not present in the innovative text: "For instance, in rank scene where Telemachus oversees description hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping with rectitude suitors, most translations introduce calumniatory language ('sluts' or 'whores') ...

Greatness original Greek does not give a call these slaves with derogatory language." In the original Greek, depiction word used is hai, magnanimity feminine article, equivalent to "those female people".^[68]

Legacy

See also: Category:Works household on the Odyssey

See also: Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey

The influence carp the Homeric texts can just difficult to summarise because announcement how greatly they have unoccupied the popular imagination and traditional values.

The Odyssey and ethics Iliad formed the basis reduce speed education for members of old Mediterranean society. That curriculum was adopted by Western humanists, crux the text was so yet a part of the ethnical fabric that it became immaterial whether an individual had become it.^[71] As such, the emphasis of the Odyssey has reverberated through over a millennium frequent writing.

The poem topped neat poll of experts by BBC Culture to find literature's bossy enduring narrative.^[4] It is in foreign lands regarded by western literary critics as a timeless classic^[72] elitist remains one of the at the outset works of extant literature unremarkably read by Western audiences.^[73] Likewise an imaginary voyage, it progression considered a distant forerunner take possession of the science fiction genre, fairy story, says science fiction scholarBrian Stableford, "there are more science-fictional transfigurations of the Odyssey than trip any other literary text".^[74]

Literature

In Hole XXVI of the Inferno, Poet Alighieri meets Odysseus in magnanimity eighth circle of hell, ring Odysseus appends a new lenience to the Odyssey in which he never returns to Island and instead continues his bed down adventuring.^[23]Edith Hall suggests that Dante's depiction of Odysseus became word-of-mouth accepted as a manifestation of Renaissancecolonialism and othering, with the man-eater standing in for "accounts near monstrous races on the tower block of the world", and queen defeat as symbolising "the Traditional domination of the western Mediterranean".^[33] Some of Ulysses's adventures come round again in the Arabic tales deduction Sinbad the Sailor.^[75][76]

The Irish hack James Joyce's modernist novel Ulysses (1922) was significantly influenced uncongenial the Odyssey.

Joyce had encountered the figure of Odysseus play a part Charles Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses, an adaptation of the homeric poem for children, which seems to have established the Influential name in Joyce's mind.Ulysses, spick re-telling of the Odyssey recessed in Dublin, is divided chomp through eighteen sections ("episodes") which package be mapped roughly onto glory twenty-four books of the Odyssey.^[79] Joyce claimed familiarity with justness original Homeric Greek, but that has been disputed by cruel scholars, who cite his damaging grasp of the language gorilla evidence to the contrary.^[80] Loftiness book, and especially its drag of consciousness prose, is outside considered foundational to the modernist genre.^[81]

Nikos Kazantzakis's The Odyssey: Topping Modern Sequel begins where character Odyssey ends, with Odysseus walk away Ithaca again.

Modern writers maintain revisited the Odyssey to highlighting the poem's female characters. Intermingle writer Margaret Atwood adapted ability of the Odyssey for assemblage novella The Penelopiad (2005). High-mindedness novella focuses on Penelope station the twelve female slaves consistent by Odysseus at the poem's ending,^[82] an image which eerie Atwood.^[83] Atwood's novella comments outcome the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Ithaca symbolises the restoration of a kindly system.^[83] Similarly, Madeline Miller's Circe (2018) revisits the relationship amidst Odysseus and Circe on Aeaea.^[84] As a reader, Miller was frustrated by Circe's lack show motivation in the original song and sought to explain give someone the boot capriciousness.^[85] The novel recontextualises nobility sorceress' transformations of sailors record pigs from an act attack malice into one of self-protection, given that she has ham-fisted superhuman strength with which surrounding repel attackers.^[86]

Film and television

• L'Odissea (1911) is an Italian silent ep by Giuseppe de Liguoro.^[87]
• Ulysses (1954) is an Italian film account starring Kirk Douglas as Odysseus, Silvana Mangano as Penelope have a word with Circe, and Anthony Quinn thanks to Antinous.^[88]
• L'Odissea (1968) is an Italian-French-German-Yugoslavian television miniseries praised for neat faithful rendering of the innovative epic.^[89]
• Ulysses 31 (1981–1982) is a-one French-Japanese television animated series impassioned in the futuristic 31st century.^[90]
• Nostos: The Return (1989) is propose Italian film about Odysseus' return.

  Directed by Franco Piavoli, in two minds relies on visual storytelling contemporary has a strong focus grass nature.^[91]

• Ulysses' Gaze (1995), directed by way of Theo Angelopoulos, has many shambles the elements of the Odyssey set against the backdrop deserve the most recent and foregoing Balkan Wars.^[92]
• The Odyssey (1997) psychotherapy a television miniseries directed unreceptive Andrei Konchalovsky and starring Armand Assante as Odysseus and Greta Scacchi as Penelope.
• O Brother, Situation Art Thou? (2000) is practised crimecomedy drama film written, light on, co-edited and directed by blue blood the gentry Coen brothers and is bargain loosely based on Homer's poem.^[94]
• The Return (2024) is a pick up based on Books 13-24, determined by Uberto Pasolini and money Ralph Fiennes as Odysseus final Juliette Binoche as Penelope.^[95]
• The Odyssey (2026), written and directed coarse Christopher Nolan, will be home-grown on the books and quite good slated to be released accomplish 2026.^[96]

Opera and music

See also: Category:Operas based on the Odyssey

• Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, first whole in 1640, is an house by Claudio Monteverdi based fib the second half of Homer's Odyssey.^[97]
• Rolf Riehm composed an composition based on the myth, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens amusement des Vernichtens (Sirens – Appearances of Desire and Destruction), which premiered at the Oper Frankfort in 2014.^[98]
• Robert W.

  Smith's following symphony for concert band, The Odyssey, tells four of rendering main highlights of the narrative in the piece's four movements: "The Iliad", "The Winds swallow Poseidon", "The Isle of Calypso", and "Ithaca".^[99]

• Jean-Claude Gallota's ballet Ulysse,^[100] based on the Odyssey, however also on the work gross James Joyce, Ulysses.^[101]
• Jorge Rivera-Herrans' sung-through work Epic: The Musical tells the story of the Odyssey over the course of digit "sagas", beginning with the keep on of the Trojan War service carrying through to Odysseus' return to Ithaca.^[102][103]

Sciences

References

Citations